In theological terms, canon designates the documents that are included in the collection of texts designated as the Bible or Scripture. The Protestant canon contains fewer books than does the Catholic canon--39 instead of 46 (see the class handout on which these are listed). So when Christians from Protestant and Catholic groups speak of the Bible, there is some variation in what they understand this to include, and sometimes this difference has theological implications.

Canon
The term canon comes from the Greek kanon, which comes from the Hebrew word kanah, which means "reed." Papyrus reeds are long and straight, and people not only use them to make paper, they also used them as rulers. Symbolically, therefore, "reed" came to have the meaning of "rule" or "norm." Thus, the Greek word kanon can designate a rule, standard, or boundary. The books of the canon define the boundaries of Christian faith--forming its rule.

Historically, Athanasius (A.D. 295-373) was the first person we know to have called a collection of biblical books the canon, although others might have done so before him. Over time the canon came to be viewed as a set collection of authoritative documents (i.e., these books and no others were the rule of life and faith). Periodically people challenge the boundaries of this collection, arguing that some canonical books should be excluded from the canon and other books outside the canon should be included. But largely the shape of the canon has remained stable for many centuries within the Christian communities that revere its contents.

Before the word canon came into use with respect to the Bible, other terms were used to designate the developing collection of sacred documents. For example, the New Testament writers refer to what we now call the Old Testament as "the writing/scripture" (he graphe), or "the writings/scriptures" (hai graphai; see Mk. 12:24; Jn. 2:22; Acts 8:32; 1 Cor. 15:3-4), or "holy writings/scriptures" (hagiai graphai).

Establishing the boundaries of the canon took a long time. Ancient Hebrew authors wrote many works that were not included in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). At times some of these are mentioned in OT passages. For example, Num. 21:14 mentions a work called the "book of the wars of the LORD," and 1 Kings 11:41 speaks of the "book of the acts of Solomon." Neither of these works has survived the ages so as to be available for us to read today. Likewise, many documents written by early Christians were not accepted later as scripture by church leaders. Some were popular and authoritative for Christians in particular regions (e.g., many Christians in Italy revered a book called the Shepherd of Hermas), as you can see on the chart that I handed out in class on the developing NT canon.

Deciding Which Books Are Inspired
Although the church took centuries to define the parameters of the canon, many Christians have a naive and magical view of the Bible that resembles what Mormons believe about the book of Mormon. According to Mormon tradition, their founder, Joseph Smith, received the Book of Mormon on golden plates sent down from God and delivered by an angel. The angel supposedly revealed the meaning of the mysterious language written on the golden plates to this "prophet," who supposedly dictated the words to some friends who wrote down the dictation. Although this fanciful story makes the Book of Mormon sound more divine in nature to the Mormon faithful, such ideas should have no place in Christian thought about the Bible.

All the biblical books were written by people who did not know that they were writing scripture. The judgment that a book was inspired was a decision made later by the believing community, which found the work to be significant for its religious life. Only Jesus ⁽¹⁾ Ben Sira, writing a book of wisdom about 180 B.C., thought that he was writing scripture (see Sirach 24:32-33), and his work was not canonized in the Hebrew Bible. Even the OT prophetic writings, although they record messages that were viewed by some as inspired when delivered orally, were not considered canonical until centuries after they were written.

Our OT contains material produced over a time span of 1,000 years, written in a variety of cultural and political conditions. These books represent different genres of literature. They were written to address real circumstances of real people in real cultures in real historical settings. Over the huge span of time in which the OT books were written, massive changes occurred, and these changes are reflected in the writings. By way of comparison, consider the changes that have occurred in America since Columbus's voyage in 1492, a little over 500 years ago, or since the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Contemplating the different conditions that have existed in our own land helps us to appreciate the sweep of history in the OT and the diversity of the documents contained in this collection of sacred writings.

Consider the following analogy as a means of understanding the canonization process: Let's time-warp into the future and pretend that in 2086 the Declaration of Independence becomes officially a part of a collection of documents considered inspired by God and given to U.S. citizens. The collection includes the Constitution, which was adopted in 1787 and put into effect in 1789. The official proclamation would not mean that suddenly, in 2086, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution began to have great meaning for the community. Precisely because of their persistent influence upon the American people they were finally canonized--given formal recognition of what had practically been true for some time. So it was with the OT books.

The Law, the Prophets, and the Writings
Israelites did not unanimously endorse all the present canonical books. There was a lengthy process of sorting before formal recognition was finally given, with recognition given first to the laws of Moses. Evidence shows that the Torah (Pentateuch) was considered sacred prior to 400 B.C. When the Samaritan people separated from the Israelites in 432 B.C. (Neh. 13:28-29), they took with them what is called the Samaritan Pentateuch, which they considered holy at that time. Although over time the Samaritans refused to consider other books to be scripture, many Israelites slowly added to their collection of sacred books. Some, like the Sadducees, did not. They continued to believe that only the Pentateuch was inspired by God. But the majority of Israelites adopted a collection that includes three divisions: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings.

The first mention of this three-fold collection of scripture is in the preface to Sirach (also called Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus), a document found in the OT Apocrypha. Jesus Ben Sira wrote this book in Hebrew about 180 B.C., and sometime shortly after 132 B.C. his grandson translated it into Greek so that Jews living in Alexandria, Egypt, could read it (many of the Jews in this region could not speak Hebrew). The grandson added his translator's preface to the beginning of the book, and in it he shows knowledge of a three-fold division of sacred writings: "Many great teachings have been given to us through the Law and the Prophets, and the others that followed them." The Writings had no set designation yet, and the grandson includes Sirach in this collection.

Sirach's grandson also bemoans the problems involved in translating from Hebrew to Greek, begging his readers

to be indulgent in cases where, despite our diligent labor in translating, we may seem to have rendered phrases imperfectly. For what was originally expressed in Hebrew does not have exactly the same sense when translated into another language. Not only this book (Sirach), but even the Law itself, the Prophecies, and the rest of the books differ not a little when read in the original.

In Israelite writings from the two centuries before Christ, there exists no set list of the books contained in the Law and the Prophets, but the contents were probably the same as we have today. However, the fluid condition of the Writings shows that there was no concept of a closed canon at that time. It is interesting that even in the New Testament the normal designation for Scripture is "the law and the prophets" or "Moses and the prophets" (Matt. 22:40; Luke 16:16; 24:27; Acts 13:15). The only passage that mentions the threefold division is Luke 24:44, which specifies the "law of Moses, and the prophets, and the psalms."

Dead Sea Scrolls
The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in caves near Qumran (located at the northwest shore of the Dead Sea), contain sections of all our biblical texts except Esther. The scrolls were written during the first and second centuries B.C., and they show again the existence of the Law and Prophets as established collections. However, they also reveal a fairly wide range of authoritative documents that are not part of the present canon. One Psalms scroll from Cave 11 has all or part of forty-one biblical psalms, but they are not in the same order as our Psalms. It also contains eight that are not now in our Psalms.

Septuagint (LXX)
Because many Hebrews in Alexandria, Egypt could not speak Hebrew, the Jewish scholars began about 250 B.C. to translate the Hebrew scriptures into Greek, beginning with the Torah. A fanciful account of the translation process, called The Letter of Aristeas, was written in the second century B.C. It claims divine inspiration even for the Greek translation, which indicates the authoritative status of the Law and the Prophets prior to this time.

Another important development from the Septuagint is the reordering of the biblical books. Instead of following the order maintained in the Hebrew Bible, the translators organized the books by topic and gave them more of a chronological arrangement. Largely due to the fact that the Septuagint was the Bible used by most Christians in the second century, the order of the books in our English translations of the Bible follows the Septuagint instead of the Hebrew Bible. (See class handout on the OT canon)

Closing the OT Canon
In Jesus' day, Jewish elders were still discussing the identity of which books were to be included in the Writings. Book five of the Psalms (= Psalms 107-150) was not yet in final form, and Jewish scholars debated over the inclusion of certain questionable books. Some questioned Ecclesiastes because of its pessimism. Some questioned the Song of Songs because its contents are so highly erotic. Some questioned Esther, because it does not mention God or have a prayer in it. Some questioned Proverbs because they perceived internal inconsistencies in its wise sayings. And some questioned Ezekiel because some of its teachings contradict the law (e.g., 18:1-4).

Three main factors apparently combined to provide the incentive for the Jewish elders to establish a canon of Scripture: (1) the loss of their religious center due to the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 66; (2) the establishment of the Pharisaic school at Jamnia, a town west of Jerusalem where scholars intensely debated theological issues (note that this means that the canon was established by one group-- Pharisaic Judaism-- within the larger Jewish community); and (3) the growth of the Jewish Christian movement, whose competitive presence not only was an irritant to the larger Jewish community but also gave incentive for Jewish leaders to define what they perceived was and was not legitimately Jewish (an established canon helped them to do so).

By the time an apocalyptic document called 4 Ezra (or 2 Esdras) was written about A.D. 100, there is a clear indication of an established, three-fold division with 24 books. Although this document was written at the end of the first century by an unknown Jewish author, it claims to have been written by Ezra. Actually, most apocalyptic writings employ this strategy of claiming authorship by an ancient hero of the Hebrew faith as a means of gaining greater credibility for the actual author's own contemporary agenda. In the narrative of this particular text, Ezra is given a divine commission to restore the sacred books that were destroyed when the Babylonians demolished Jerusalem (c. 486 B.C.). Note in 4 Ezra 14:37-48 the rather magical way in which this was supposedly accomplished.

³⁷ So I took the five men, as he commanded me, and we proceeded to the field, and remained there. ³⁸ And on the next day a voice called me, saying, "Ezra, open your mouth and drink what I give you to drink." ³⁹ So I opened my mouth, and a full cup was offered to me; it was full of something like water, but its color was like fire. ⁴⁰ I took it and drank; and when I had drunk it, my heart poured forth understanding, and wisdom increased in my breast, for my spirit retained its memory, ⁴¹ and my mouth was opened and was no longer closed. ⁴² Moreover, the Most High gave understanding to the five men, and by turns they wrote what was dictated, using characters that they did not know. They sat forty days; they wrote during the daytime, and ate their bread at night. ⁴³ But as for me, I spoke in the daytime and was not silent at night. ⁴⁴ So during the forty days, ninety-four books were written. ⁴⁵ And when the forty days were ended, the Most High spoke to me, saying, "Make public the twenty-four books that you wrote first, and let the worthy and the unworthy read them; ⁴⁶ but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give them to the wise among your people. ⁴⁷ For in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the river of knowledge." ⁴⁸ And I did so.

The Bible of the Early Christians 
Because the church rapidly expanded into Gentile regions, the Septuagint became the main form of Christian scriptures. Because it contains more books than the Hebrew canon, the number of writings used by most Christians was larger than those venerated by Pharisaic Judaism. Occasionally this larger canon is visible even in the New Testament. For example, Jude 9 refers to a book called the Assumption of Moses, and Jude 14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9, an apocalyptic document that you may read in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 1. 

Outside the NT this tendency becomes much more visible. Origen, a great Christian scholar who lived A.D. 185-253, distinguished between Jewish and Christian scriptures. He states that the Jews don't recognize Tobit and Judith (two books found in the OT Apocrypha), whereas the churches do (Ad Africanum V. XIII). He admits, however, that not all the churches received 1 Enoch "as divine" (Contra Celsum V. 54). Early Christian writings reveal numerous examples of church leaders using scripture citation formulas (e.g., "it is written" or "scripture says") when quoting works like Tobit, Sirach, and Wisdom. For example, Tertullian, a great teacher in North Africa who lived c. A.D. 160-220, defended 1 Enoch as being scripture, arguing that it survived the Genesis Flood and was preserved by Noah, Enoch's grandson. He also uses the fact that Jude quotes Enoch as an argument for its inspiration (On the Apparel of Women I. 3).

During the second half of the fourth century, the church finally fixed the OT canon. During the several centuries prior to this time, leaders in different regions of the Mediterranean world championed different ideas of what was and was not scripture. Christian scholars in the East (Egypt and Syria) tended to support the Jewish canon, while those in the West (Rome, Constantinople, etc.) supported the broader canon contained in the Septuagint. Athanasius (A.D. 295-373), bishop of Alexandria, called Wisdom, Sirach, Esther, Judith, and Tobit "apocrypha"; yet he not only included 2 Esdras, but he also combined Baruch and Lamentations, united the Epistle of Jeremiah with Jeremiah, and omitted Esther.

The great scholar St. Jerome (c. 347-419), who translated the Bible into Latin, settled in Bethlehem and defended the Jewish canon, calling the other books apocryphal. His work was so influential that the church adopted his translation, called the Latin Vulgate, as the official version of the church. Yet others church leaders did not follow his lead in adopting a smaller canon. St. Augustine (354-430) defended an inclusive canon of forty-four books (On Christian Doctrine II. viii. 13). He appealed to the widespread use in the church of these books as his rationale (City of God XVIII. 38). Delegates at the Council of Hippo in 393 defended this larger canon, as did those at the Council of Carthage in 397 and 419.

The larger, Catholic canon continued to dominate, although some endorsed the view of Jerome. The first translation of the Bible into English, made by John Wycliffe in 1380, was made from the Latin Vulgate, not the Hebrew Bible and the Greek NT. Wycliffe adopted the smaller Jewish canon, and Protestant reformers rejected belief in the inspiration of the books of the Apocrypha. Martin Luther limited the canon to the Hebrew Scriptures and appealed to Jerome's authority in so doing (Luther also rejected the NT books of James, Hebrews, and Revelation from the canon). Protestants largely followed Luther's view. In response, Catholic delegates to the Council of Trent in 1546 declared that all works in the Latin Vulgate (including the Apocrypha) were inspired by God.

Today a number of biblical scholars have reopened the discussion of canonicity, arguing for larger or smaller canons of scripture. We will not explore this debate in Bible 105, but you should know that some Christians are wrestling with the issue.

Endnote
1. Jesus is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua--not an uncommon name.