1. Become familiar with library and Internet resources that contain ancient Near Eastern writings: the Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, New Testament Apocrypha, etc.
2. Read a wide selection of ancient Near Eastern documents as a means of increasing your understanding of the world of the Bible.
3. Learn the basics about biblical archaeology and what it contributes to our understanding of the Old Testament and New Testament.
4. Explore non-biblical ancient Near Eastern documents to understand more about their authors’ cosmological and theological viewpoints and to reflect on what these contribute to our understanding of the Old Testament and New Testament.
5. Examine characteristics of ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean cultures and reflect on how these viewpoints influenced peoples’ views of ethics, morality, family structure, responsibilities of family members, attitudes toward outsiders, attitudes toward war, views of the value of human life, views on afterlife, etc.
6. Develop a more nuanced understanding of interpreting genres of biblical literature.
7. Reflect on matters relating to the canon of Scripture and the ways in which Christians formulate beliefs about the Bible and contemporary life.

Learning Activities and Grading System

BIBL 307 surveys a wide variety of ancient documents from the world of the Bible. We will examine texts representing different genres and time periods and reflect on their relevance for understanding the meaning of biblical materials. Unlike courses such as Selected New Testament Books or Selected Old Testament Books, which focus on one or more biblical books, Biblical Backgrounds exposes you to a larger number of documents.

For each day’s reading there is in the syllabus a series of questions designed to aid your comprehension of the assigned document(s). You are expected to come to class prepared to discuss these questions. You will also be expected to submit to Prof. Cosby a question about that day’s reading assignment that is significant for you. Your questions will help to provide a catalyst for discussion of the readings—and to insure relevance of discussions. Email them to Dr. Cosby at least 30 minutes prior to class or write them on a 3x5 inch card and place them at the front of the classroom when you enter. Don’t slop something down after you come to class. These questions are to be serious and thought provoking. Make sure you name is on the card so that Prof. Cosby can keep track of your contributions.

At the conclusion of each section of the course, you will submit a reflection paper in which you interact with the material that we have studied and with our class discussions. Grades will be determined on the basis of how well you analyze the readings and on the basis of your interaction with the implications of information communicated in class sessions. These papers will be 5+ pages in length and will flow out of readings, notes and discussions. You may trace particular themes in each section (e.g., developing views on afterlife in Wisdom literature). Choose themes that interest you and are significant in the chosen texts. The format for papers is as follows: one-inch margins all around, Times New Roman font size 12. Each paper is worth 50 points.

You will also do one research project for which you will use library resources. The purpose of this project is to go in depth on a text and to develop your ability to interact with secondary sources—scholarly assessments of the literature. The class emphasis is on reading primary texts, but you also need to become familiar with research in the area of biblical backgrounds. You will choose an area of interest from the class syllabus and propose a paper topic to Prof. Cosby. You may bring to class a Power Point presentation or other visual aids on the day your paper is due. No doubt you will want to share with others what you have learned. Your final research paper will be due a week after the class session in which we discuss the reading assignment to which your paper relates. If, for example, you do a study of the Gilgamesh Epic, your paper will be due one week after we discuss ancient flood stories. The research papers will be seven to ten pages long, using one-inch margins and Times New Roman font size 12. The paper is worth 100 points.

Final grades will primarily be based on the scores earned on your written work. However, your questions on 3x5 cards and your class participation will also enter into consideration. If, for example, your final score is just below an A- score, but your class participation has been good; your grade will be adjusted to an A-. If, on the other hand, your score is an A-, but you did not take the questions seriously and came to class unprepared to discuss the readings, your grade will be adjusted down to a B+. Work submitted late will incur a point reduction. If you have significant conflicts with the time that any particular assignment is due, talk to Prof. Cosby in advance to make alternate arrangements. Submit hard copies; do not email assignments.

Grade scale: A 93–100%, A– 90–92%, B+ 87–89%, B 83–86%, B– 80–82%, C+ 77–79%, C 73–76%, C– 70–72, D+ 67–69, D 60–66%.

Assignments

Feb  1  Introduction to Biblical Backgrounds: Archaeology. Read the “Bible Dudes” website on Biblical Archaeology http://bibledudes.com/biblical-studies/archaeology.php . Also go to the http://bibledudes.com/ homepage and click on the “Stratigraphical Layers in the Southern Levant” link in the bottom right part of the screen. This site provides a great illustration of civilization layers of ancient cities.

        3  Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran Community: Introduction to the history of the Dead Sea Scrolls (pp. 1–25); “Rule of the Community” (1QS) (pp. 97–117). (A) What are the qualifications for membership in this group? (B) How does the group envisioned in 1QS compare with Josephus’s description of the Essenes in Jewish War II.8.2–13 [§§119–161]? (web at http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/war-2.htm ). = Book 2, chapter 8.

       5   Dead Sea Scrolls: Damascus Document (CD) [pp. 127–145] and The Messianic Rule (1QSa=1Q28a) [pp. 159–62]. (A) What similarities in content do these texts share in common with 1QS? (B) How do some of the expectations and teachings differ from 1QS? (C) How do the beliefs about the nature of the messianic community at Qumran compare with what we see in the early church in Acts?

       8   Dead Sea Scrolls hymns: Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH) 1–16 (pp. 249–283). (A) What do these hymns reveal about the poet’s beliefs about God? (sovereignty, omniscience, holiness, etc.)  (B) What are his main complaints against his opponents, and what does he want to happen to them? (C) What do the poems reveal about the personal history of the poet? (D) What does he believe to be the condition of humans? (E) How do his beliefs about salvation and how one lives a holy life compare with what you have seen in the New Testament?

     10   Dead Sea Scrolls: Biblical Interpretation: Pesher.  Commentaries on Isaiah (4Q161–64) [pp. 497–500]; Commentaries on Hosea (4Q166–67) [pp. 501–502]; Commentary on Nahum (4Q169) [pp. 504–508]; Commentary on Habakkuk (1QpHab) [pp. 509–516].     (A) How does the use of Scripture in these DSS texts compare with the use of the Scriptures in Matthew 1–2; Acts 3:22–24; Romans 10; and 1 Corinthians 10:1–13?

      12  Dead Sea Scrolls: Messianic Expectations: The War Scroll (1QM) [pp. 163–85]; Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521) [pp. 412–413]; Messianic Anthology (4Q175) [pp. 527–28]. (A) What expectations of the Messiah do these texts reveal? (B) Look up some web sites on Roman weaponry and uniforms and battle tactics to see what help they provide for envisioning the battle formations, etc. in the DSS readings for today.

      15  Pharisaic Piety: Psalms of Solomon. In R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English, vol 2, or James Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 2. On-line version at http://www.goodnewsinc.org/othbooks/psalmsol.html Or http://www.abu.nb.ca/Courses/NTIntro/InTest/PsSolTex.htm

            (A) How do you respond to the expressions of deep yearning to please God that are expressed in these poems? (B) What does the poet believe about God and God’s dealing with people? (C) How do the poet’s messianic expectations compare with those expressed in the DSS and in Luke 1:67–79 and 3:7–17? (D) What are the poet’s beliefs about judgment and afterlife?

      17  Mishnah: Shabbath 1.1–3.6; 6.1–10; 15.1–12 (Danby, The Mishnah, pp. 100–105, 113); Sotah 1.1–5.3 (293–299); Ketuboth 1.1–10; 7.6–10 (245–46, 255) Aboth 1.1–7 (p. 446, 459–60). Note the ways that the Rabbis use Scripture and the kinds of issues that occupy them.    Reflection paper due on the use of Scripture in the Dead Sea Scrolls, PssSol and Mishnah.

Early Christian Literature     http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/index.html

      19  The Didache: Early Christian Teaching. (LCL, vol. 1, 309–333; or web sites like http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didache-roberts.html). Another web version provides the Scripture passages relevant to various quotations in the Didache. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0714.htm .

      22  1 Clement: (LCL, vol. 1, pp. 9–121; ANF 1–21). http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html . (A) What does this letter reveal about the Christians in Corinth at the end of the first century? (B) How does Clement use the Scriptures (LXX)? (C) What is unusual about his explanation of the resurrection of Jesus? (D) What is Clement’s view of the apostle Paul?

      24  Ignatius: Developing Church Structure. (ANF 49–78 short versions only). To the Ephesians: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-ephesians-roberts.html

Magnesians: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-magnesians-roberts.html

Smyrneans: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html

Romans: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-roberts.html

Index of letters: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ignatius-intro.html

            (A) What view of church hierarchy does Ignatius promote (esp. that of bishop)? (B) What does he believe about Jesus? (C) What is his attitude toward Jews? Toward heretics?    (D) What does he believe about Paul and the other apostles? (E) Does he rely more on the OT or on Paul’s writings for authority?

      26  Epistle of Barnabas. (ANF 137–149; LCL 341–409). http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/barnabas-roberts.html  (A) What is his attitude toward Jews and the OT laws? (B) What does he believe about Jesus? (C) How does he use the Scriptures?

Mar  1  Gnosticism: Gospel of Thomas  http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/gthlamb.html

 (A) How does the content of these sayings compare with the content of similar sayings in the canonical Gospels? (B) What does the author seem to believe about Christ and salvation?

        3  Gnosticism: Apocryphon of John  http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/apocjn.html  You might find this reading to be challenging, because it represents a way of thinking that is foreign to you. Try to determine the author’s views on the following: (A) the nature of Christ; (B) the composition and nature of the Pleroma; (C) the origin of the god of the Old Testament; (D) the origin of human beings; (E) the nature of salvation.       Reflection paper due on use of Scripture by early Christian and Gnostic writers, or their understanding of Jesus and/or salvation.

Greek Influences on Jewish Thinking

       5   Greek Beliefs in Afterlife: Myth of Er in Plato’s Republic X, (613e–621d) http://www.davidson.edu/academic/classics/neumann/CLA350/ErMyth.html  (A) What beliefs does this tale present regarding what happens to people after they die? (B) How does Socrates’ explanation of the basis for what happens to people after death compare with your own understanding of what happens after a person dies?  (C) What is your personal response to the explanation in the Myth of Er of the way the dead choose the form of their return to earthly existence?   [Also read the following two websites.]

            http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/dbag/hd_dbag.htm#slideshow21

            http://www.allabouthistory.org/ancient-greeks-faq.htm

       8   Platonic view of the Universe: Read Timaeus’s description of the cosmos in Plato’s Timaeus 27c-52c, http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Plato/Timaeus/timaeus1.htm (chapters 3–20 on this web site).  (A) On the basis of his explanation, draw a picture of the cosmos.       (B) What are Timaeus’ views of soul, time, eternal being, and physical creation?

    10    Platonic view of reality: (A) On the basis of Plato’s “Myth of the cave” in Republic 29 (514a-521b) http://home.messiah.edu/~mcosby/NT-Lit.htm#Republic), draw your own picture of the cave as depicted in the account [do it on the basis of analyzing the text—not by finding a drawing on the internet and copying it]. (B) How does this view of what is truly “real” compare with that presented in Hebrews 8–10?

     12   Allegorical interpretation in Alexandria: Philo, On the Creation of the World chapters I-XII (1–12) on line at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/philo-creation.html.              (A) What evidence is there that Philo relied on beliefs found in Plato’s Timaeus when he interpreted Genesis?  (B) What is your personal response to Philo’s method of allegorizing passages from the OT?

March 13–21  Spring Break

Maccabean Revolt—Rejection of Greek Beliefs

     22   Maccabean Rebellion: 1 Maccabees 1–10; 13:41–42; 14:25–49.  (A) What were the main causes of the revolt led by Mattathias? (B) What is your personal response to the ways that Mattathias and Judas inspire the Jewish soldiers to bravery in battle? (C) What is your personal evaluation of the decision that Mattathias reaches in 2:39–41? (D) Note in chapter 4 the events that led to the establishment of the Jewish feast of Hanukkah. Also note carefully how in chapter 14 the titles of both high priest and king are conferred on Simon. 

     24   Martyrdom and Greek philosophy. 4 Maccabees. (A) How does the depiction of Antiochus Epiphanes compare with that given in 1 Maccabees?  (B) How does the author use Greek philosophical beliefs in order to defend martyrdom for the law?  (C) What is your personal response to the author’s main premise about martyrdom?

     26   Philosophical Wisdom: Wisdom of Solomon 1–9: (OT Apocrypha). (A) What does the author believe about human souls and afterlife? Do you see any Greek influence? If so, what? (B) What is the author’s view of the pervasive OT theology of retribution?         (C) What does the author say is the source of wisdom, and of what benefit is wisdom to people?

     29   Wisdom and the World: Wisdom of Solomon 10–19: (A) According to Wisdom 10–12, what role did wisdom play in biblical history? (B) Of what value is the argument against idolatry in Wisdom 13–14 for understanding Romans 1:18–32?  Reflection paper due on Greek influence on Jewish beliefs.

Apocalypses—Rejection of Greco-Roman Culture

      31  Apocalyptic Literature: Read 2 Esdras 3–10 (Old Testament Apocrypha). (A) What theological problem does Ezra ponder in chapter 3? (B) Do you believe that Uriel’s answer to Ezra in chapter 4ff. is an actual message from an angel, or is the author using a literary genre to provide his own opinion? (C) What explanation does Uriel give for the aging of the earth? (D) What does he say will happen at the end of time? (E) What does he teach about the coming messiah in chapter 7 that we have not seen before? (F) How do you respond to the teaching about the last judgment in these chapters?

April 2–5   Easter Break

       7   Divine Inspiration of Scripture: 2 Esdras 11–16. (A) How does the way Rome is symbolized in 2 Esdras 11 compare with the way it is symbolized in Revelation 12:3; 13:1–18; 17:1–18? How does it compare with the images used in Daniel 7:1–8, 19–28? (B) What do chapters 11–12 predict will happen to Rome?  (C) How is the messiah symbolized in chapter 13, and what does the messiah accomplish?  (D) What is your personal evaluation of the view of the restoration/inspiration of the Hebrew Scriptures given in chapter 14? What do you personally mean when you say that the Bible is inspired by God?

        9  Visions and Parables of Enoch: 1 Enoch 1–36 (Don’t panic. The chapters are short!). Found in the OT Pseudepigrapha, vol. 1 in the James H. Charlesworth edition [library # BS1830 .A3 1983]; or vol. 2 in the R. H. Charles edition of the Pseudepigrapha [BS1692 .C45 1963]). The older translation by Charles is also on line at http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/enoch/ENOCH_1.HTM

            (A) How does the angelic messenger in 1 Enoch compare with the one described in 2 Esdras? (B) What explanation does 1 Enoch give for the significance of the events described in Gen. 6:1–4?  (C) What does chapter 10 say will happen at the end of time? (D) What does Enoch learn about the structure of the earth in his heavenly journey?     (E) What does Enoch learn about the last judgment and punishment of fallen angels?

      12  Similitudes: 1 Enoch 37–71. http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/enoch/ENOCH_2.HTM   (A) How do these chapters describe Messiah, the Son of Man? (B) What understandings of the earth and heaven are presented in this section? (C) What understanding of judgment and afterlife are presented? (D) Which of the fanciful explanations in this section did you find to be the most interesting? Why?

      14  Book of Heavenly Luminaries: 1 Enoch 72–82. http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/enoch/ENOCH_3.HTM  Small group project: On the basis of chapters 72–82, create a model of the cosmos according to Enoch (a physical model—not a computer generated model).     Reflection paper due on Apocalypses.

ANE Wisdom Literature and Songs

     16   Cross-cultural influences in Wisdom Literature:  Compare the Wisdom of Amen-em-Opet (ANE 237–243) with Prov. 22:17–24:22. (A) What similarities do you notice between Amen-em-Opet and Prov. 22:17–24:22 with respect to sequence and content of the sayings? (B) What differences do you notice?

     19   Love Poetry in Egypt: Analyze the Egyptian love songs in ANE 257–258 and on the following websites: http://www.humanistictexts.org/egyptlov.htm http://reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/people/lovesongs.htm  Determine what you can about the structure and content (themes) of the poems. In other words, if you were going to determine what characterizes this genre of love songs, what would you report?

     21   Love Poetry in the Bible: Analyze the Song of Songs (= Song of Solomon) in light of the Egyptian love poems. (A) How does the structure and content of the Song of Songs compare with the Egyptian poems? (B) What insight do the Egyptian poems give us for how to interpret the Song of Songs?

     23   Wisdom of Jesus Ben Sira: Sirach/Ecclesiasticus 1–24. (OT Apocrypha)

            Note the translation disclaimer given by the grandson of Ben Sira in the prologue. Also note that Ben Sira’s wisdom has many similarities with the content of Proverbs. (A) What is Ben Sira’s view of God? (describe his theology). (B) What is Ben Sira’s view of proper family relationships? (What are the proper roles for husbands, wives, and children?)     (C) Earlier wisdom documents do not comment on the laws of Moses. What does Sirach say about them? (D) Does Ben Sira believe in afterlife or in Sheol?

     26   Advice for Life: Sirach 25–51. (A) What is Ben Sira’s view of women in chapters 25–26? (B) What advice does Ben Sira give on disciplining children? (C) What advice does Ben Sira give on drinking wine? (D) According to Ben Sira, what qualities and training should a scribe have? Of what benefit is a scribe to society? (E) What further insight into Ben Sira’s belief in Sheol or in heaven and hell do these chapters reveal?

Ancient Near Eastern Laws, Legends and Histories

     28   Law Collections: Eshnunna (ANE 133–138) and Hammurabi (ANE 138–167; see picture #59 in the back of the book). (A) What insights do these law collections provide into the cultures of the people who wrote them? (B) How does the form of these laws compare with the form of the laws of Moses in Exodus 20–23? (form = the ways in which they are composed)