1 R. H. Denniston, "Homosexuality in Animals," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modern Reappraisal, ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 25-40. There may be some examples of same-sex pairing among birds, but some "promiscuity" is required for eggs: J. D. Weinrich, "The Kinsey Scale in Biology," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed. D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 133-34.

2 R. D. Nadler, "Homosexual Behavior in Nonhuman Primates," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 138-70.

3 L. A. Rosenblum, "Primates, Homo sapiens and Homosexuality," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation ed. D. P. McWhiiter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 172-73.

4 A. Karlen, "Homosexuality in History," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modern Reappraisal ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 75-90; and D. Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 89-396.

5 John Boswell, Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe (New York: Villard Books, 1994). For an excellent, detailed review, see B. D. Shaw, "A Groom of One's Own?" The New Republic, July 18-25, 1994, pp. 33-41.

6 See J. M. Canier, "Homosexual Behavior in Cross-Cultural Perspective," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modem Reappraisal, ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 100-22; Homosexuality and the World Religions, ed. A. Swidler (Valley Forge, Penn.: Trinity Press International, 1993); and Greenberg, Construction of Homosexuality, pp. 25-88.

7 See relevant articles and bibliography on each religious tradition in Swidler, Homosexuality and the World Religions.

8 S. LeVay, "A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men," Science 258 (August 30, 1991): 1034-37.

9 For the criticisms advanced here, see especially W. Byne and B. Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation: The Biologic Theories Reappraised," Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (March 1993): 228-29, 234-35; R. C. Friedman and J. Downey, "Neurobiology and Sexual Orientation: Current Relationships," Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 5 (Spring 1993): 148; and M. Barinaga, "Is Homosexuality Biological?" Science 253 (August 30, 1991): 956-57.

10 See D. F. Swaab, L. J. G. Gooren and M. A. Hofman, "Gender and Sexual Orientation in Relation to Hypothalamic Structures," Hormone Research 38, supp. 2 (1992): 51-61; Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," pp. 229, 236; A. Gibbons, "The Brain as 'Sexual Organ,'" Science 253 (August 30, 1991): 957-59. Swaab, Gooren and Hofman did not attempt to replicate LeVay's finding, but they found that another region of the hypothalamus, the sexually dimorphic nucleus, was identical in homosexual and heterosexual men, while the suprachiasmatic nucleus (function unknown) was larger in homosexual men.

11 L. S. Allen and R. A. Gorski, "Sexual Orientation and the Size of the Anterior Commissure in the Human Brain," Proceedings of the National Academy of the United States of America 89 (August 1, 1992): 7199-202.

12 K. Ö. Götestam, T. J. Coates and M. Ekstrand, "Handedness, Dyslexia and Twinning in Homosexual Men," International Journal of Neuroscience 63 (1992):179-86.

13 S. Demeter, J. L. Ringo and R. W. Doty, "Morphometric Analysis of the Human Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure," Human Neurobiology 6 (1988): 219-26.

14 Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," p. 235.

15 B. A. Gladue, "Psychobiological Contributions," in Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 132-34; Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," pp. 231-32.

16 See L. Gooren, "Biomedical Theories of Sexual Orientation: A Critical Examination," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed. D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 71-87; Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," pp. 230-34; Friedman and Downey, "Neurobiology and Sexual Orientation:'pp. 134-36.

17 Gladue, "Psychobiological Contributions:' p. 143, compare pp. 134-43. See also J. Bancroft, "Commentary: Biological Contributions to Sexual Orientation," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed. D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 109; J. Money, "Sin, Sickness or Status? Homosexual Gender Identity and Psychoneuroendocrinology," in Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Male Experiences, ed. L. D. Garnets and D. C. Kimmel (New York. Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 162-63.

18 "A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation" Archives of General Psychiatry 48 (1991): 1089-96; J. M. Bailey et al., "Heritable Factors Influence Sexual Orientation in Women," Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (March 1993): 217-23.

19 In the female study there were also thirty-five adoptive sisters, two of whom (6 percent) were homosexual.

20 A 65 per-cent concordance rate for thirty-four monozygotic pairs and 30 percent concordance rate for twenty-three dizygotic pairs was reported by F. L. Whitam, M. Diamond and J. Martin, "Homosexual Orientation in Twins: A Report on Sixty-one Pairs and Three Triplet Sets," Archives of Sexual Behavior 22, no. 3 (1993): 187-206. Compare similar concordance figures for a smaller sample reported by N. Buhrich, J. M. Bailey and N. G. Martin, "Sexual Orientation, Sexual Identity and Sex-Dimorphic Behaviors in Male Twins," Behavior Genetics 21 (January 1991): 75-96.

21 M. King and E. McDonald, "Homosexuals Who Are Twins: A Study of Forty-six Probands," British Journal of Psychiatry 160 (1992): 407-9; see further bibliography in Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," p. 229.

22 N. Risch, E. Squires-Wheeler and B. J. B. Keats, "Male Sexual Orientation and Genetic Evidence," Science 262 (December 24, 1993): 2063.

23 Some speculation in this direction which preserves biologic causation is provided by W. J. Turner, "Comments on Discordant Monozygotic Twinning in Homosexuality," Archives of Sexual Behavior 23 (February 1994): 115-19. Turner suggests the possibility of unequal blood supply in the womb and generic changes following separation of the twins within the womb.

24 D. Hamer et al., "A linkage Between DNA Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation," Science 261 (July 16, 1993): 321-27.

25 M. Baron, "Genetic Linkage and Male Homosexual Orientation: Reasons to Be Cautious," British Medical Journal 307 (August 7, 1993): 337; compare M. King, "Sexual Orientation and the X," Nature 364 (July 22, 1993): 288. King is in other respects favorable toward Hamer's research.

26 A. Fausto-Sterling and E. Balaban, "Genetics and Male Sexual Orientation," Science 261 (September 3, 1993): 1257.

27 J. Maddox, "Wilful Public Misunderstanding of Genetics," Nature 364 (July 22,1993): 281

28 Baron, "Genetic Linkage," p. 338; L. Pool, "Evidence for Homosexuality Gene," Science 261 (July 16,1993): 291-2.

29 Fausto-Sterling and Balaban, "Genetics and Male Sexual Orientation,, p. 1257.

3O Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," pp. 236-37.

31 Maddox, "Wilful Public Misunderstanding," p. 281. Specialists will appreciate the exchange on several technical points of genetic research between N. Risch et al. and D. Hamer in Science 262 (December 24, 1993): 2063-65. I confess my incompetence to declare a winner in that debate.

32 Byne and Parsons, "Human Sexual Orientation," p. 228.

33 Lest there be any doubt that public opinion of morality is swayed by biologic causation studies, one study proved it with a group of students: J. Piskur and D. Degelman, "Effect of Reading a Summary of Research About Biological Bases of Homosexual Orientation on Attitudes Toward Homosexuality," Psychological Reports 71, no. 3, pt. 2 (December 1992):1219-25.

34 D. Y. Rist, "Are Homosexuals Born That Way?" The Nation, October 19, 1992, pp. 424-29.

35 The best explanations of social construction theory in relation to the individual are R. C. Troiden, "The Formation of Homosexual Identities," in Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian and Gay Male Experiences, ed. L. D. Garnets and D. C. Kimmel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 191-217, and V. C. Cass, "The Implications of Homosexual Identity Formation for the Kinsey Model and Scale of Sexual Preference," in Homosexuality / Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed. D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 239-66. For a direct comparison to biological theories see J. P. De Cecco and J. P. Elia, "A Critique and Synthesis of Biological Essentialism and Social Constructionist Views of Sexuality and Gender," Journal of Homosexuality 24, nos. 3/4 (1993): 1-26. On the historical dimension see D. F. Greenberg, The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 1-21,482-99, and M. Foucault,\ The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction (New York: Vintage, 1980).

36 This is Foucault's position, and presumably that of G. D. Goss (see above, chapters two and three); for a critique by another constructionist, see Greenberg, Construction of Homosexuality, pp. 489-99.

37 The best of these, in my opinion, are Lawrence J. Hatterer, Changing Homosexuality in the Male. Treatment for Men Troubled by Homosexuality (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), and E. Moberly, "Homosexuality: Restating the Conservative Case," Salmagundi 58/59 (Fall 1982/Winter 1983): 281-99. Other important works reflecting variety within the developmental perspective include R. T. Barnhouse, Homosexuality: A Symbolic Confusion (New York: Seabury Press, 1977); I. Bieber et al., Homosexuality. A Psychoanalytic Study (New York: Basic Books, 1962), pp. 44-117; B. Burch, "Heterosexuality, Bisexuality and Lesbianism: Rethinking Psychoanalytic Views of Women's Sexual Object Choice," Psychoanalytic Review 80 (Spring 1993): 83-89; R. Fine, "Psychoanalytic Theory," in Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 81-95; R. C. Friedman, "Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Homosexuality," Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology 98, no. 2 (1991):155-60; E Moberly, Psychogenesis: The Early Development of Gender Identity (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983); F. Morgenthaler, Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, Perversion (Hillsdale, NJ.: Analytic, 1988); C. W. Socarides, "The Homosexualites: A Psychoanalytic Classification," in The Homosexualities: Reality, Fantasy and the Arts, ed. C. W. Socarides and V. D. Volkan (Madison, Conn.: International Universities Press, 1991), pp. 9-46 (see also Socarides's books in my general bibliography); and M. Stemlicht, "The Neo-Freudians," in Male and Female Homosexuality, Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 97-107.

38 Twenty-three studies are cited by M. Siegelman, "Kinsey and Others: Empirical Input," in Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), p. 51. See especially the large sample studies of M. T. Saghir and E. Robins, Male and Female Homosexuality: A Comprehensive Investigation (Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 1973); Bieber et al., Homosexuality, pp. 79,114; and A. Bell, M. Weinberg and S. Hammersmith, Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 41-62,117-34.

39 Saghir and Robins, Male and Female Homosexuality, pp. 139, 296-97, compared to 9 percent and 4 percent of heterosexual controls, respectively; compare D. L. Peters and P. J. Cantrell, "Factors Distinguishing Samples of Lesbian and Heterosexual Women," Journal of Homosexuality 21, no. 4 (1991): 10. Peters and Cantrell also found an unusual incidence of protracted absence during childhood on the part of fathers of homosexual women.

40 See, for example, Sagbir and Robins, Male and Female Homosexuality, pp. 17-31, 191-203; R. Green, The "Sissy Boy" Syndrome and the Development of Homosexuality (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987); G. Phillips and R. Over, "Adult Sexual Orientation in Relation to Memories of Childhood Gender Conforming and Gender Nonconforming Behaviors," Archives of Sexual Behavior 21, no. 6 (1992): 543-58; and Bell, Weinberg and Hammersmith, Sexual Preference, pp. 74-81, 145-52. It should be noted that Bell et al. do not use this finding in support of classic psychoanalytic theory.

41 For further documentation on father relationships in relation to female homosexuals, see the summary of ten studies in G. J. M. van den Aardweg, On the Origins and Treatment of Homosexuality (New York. Praeger, 1986), pp. 183-84.

42 Peters and Cantrell ("Factors Distinguishing Samples," pp- 2-3) cite ten former studies that document high rates of incest, rape and molestation; but their survey did not confirm the pattern.

43 This argument of course cuts both ways: since developmental theory is now out of fashion, homosexuals are either not asked about or no longer "remember" early childhood problems. It is certainly suspicious that to my knowledge, not a single study of early childhood among homosexuals has been conducted since the early 1980s. Is no one interested, or is grant money for research tied to political concerns? For extended arguments that developmental theory is an expression of homophobia see K. Lewes, The Analytic Theory of Homosexuality (New York. Simon & Schuster, 1988), and the review by R. C. Friedman in Archives of Sexual Behavior 19 (June 1990): 293-301. In the same issue (pp. 303-7) Lewes reviews Friedman's published defense of developmental theory: Male Homosexuality: A Contemporary Psychoanalytic Perspective (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988).

44 For example, Siegelman, "Kinsey and Others," pp. 53-54; Bell, Weinberg and Hammersmith, Sexual Preference p. 218.

45 Burch, "Heterosexuality, Bisexuality and Lesbianism," p. 97.

46 J. Greenspoon and P. A. Lamal, "A Behaviorist Approach," in Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 109-28. See also M. Storms, "A Theory of Erotic Orientation Development," Psychological Review 88 (1981): 340-53.

47 See, for example, Goss, Jesus Acted Up, p. 44; J. J. McNeill, The Church and the Homosexual (Boston: Beacon, 1976; 4th ed. 1993), pp. 122-23.

48 L. S. Doll et al., "Self-Reported Childhood and Adolescent Sexual Abuse Among Adult Homosexual and Bisexual Men," Child Abuse and Neglect 16 (1992): 855-64. The study was conducted among one thousand adults in Chicago, Denver and San Francisco during 1989-1990.

49 D. P. McWhitter and A. M. Mattison, The Male Couple: How Relationships Develop (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1984), p. 269, table 41 (312 subjects); p. 271 for heterosexuals. It should be noted that the experiences reported by this study most often involved intimacy with other boys rather than men, and we must acknowledge that heterosexual men may be less likely to report such experiences. Obviously any statistics based on reports of childhood memories must be used very cautiously.

50 Sexuality, as I noted in chapter three, is indeed central to a person's being, but sexuality is broader and deeper than sexual activity, and it does not have to be expressed by sexual activity.

51 Byne and Parsons ("Human Sexual Orientation " pp. 236-37) call this an "interactionist model"; De Cecco and Elia ("Critique and Synthesis," pp. 1-19) describe a "synthesis" of biological essentialism and social constructionism; and most developmental theorists acknowledge the possibility of an underlying biological factor.

52 This does happen: see K. Siegel and V. H. Raveis, "AIDS-Related Reasons for Gay Men's Adoption of Celibacy," AIDS Education and Prevention 5 (Fall 1993): 302-10.

53 See L. Diamant, introduction to Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 1-15.

54 See, for example, R. A. Isay, "Psychoanalytic Theory and the Therapy of Gay Men," in Homosexuality/Heterosexuality: Concepts of Sexual Orientation, ed. D. P. McWhirter, S. A. Sanders and J. M. Reinisch, Kinsey Institute Series 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 283-303.

55 See, for example, D. C. Haldeman, "Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy for Gay Men and Lesbians: A Scientific Examination," in Homosexuality: Implications for Public Policy, ed. J. C Gonsiorek and J. D. Weinrich (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991), pp. 149-60. Haldeman is particularly critical of Christian ministries to homosexuals, which he considers unprofessional and ineffective gimmicks hiding under "the formidable auspices of the Christian church."

56 C. W. Socarides and B. Kaufman, "Reparative Therapy" (letter and replies), American Journal of Psychiatry 151 (January 1994): 157-59.

57 For a general discussion of treatment efforts and success rates see F. S. Berlin et al., "Media Distortion of the Public's Perception of Recidivism and Psychiatric Rehabilitation," American Journal of Psychiatry 148 (November 1991):1572-76; L. Diamant, "The Therapies," in Male and Female Homosexuality: Psychological Approaches, ed. L. Diamant, Series in Clinical and Community Psychology (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1987), pp. 199-217 (I stole Diamant's clever subtitle for this section); and J. Marmor, "Clinical Aspects of Male Homosexuality," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modern Reappraisal ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 275-79. For detailed reports of techniques and change results, see J. Bieber et al., Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study (New York: Basic Books, 1962); L. Birk, "The Myth of Classical Homosexuality. Views of a Behavioral Psychotherapist," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modern Reappraisal ed. J. Marmor (New York. Basic Books, 1980), pp. 376-90; A. Ellis, "The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy with Individuals Who Have Severe Homosexual Problems," in The Problem of Homosexuality in Modern Society, ed. H. M. Ruienbeck (New York. E. P. Dutton, 1965), pp. 175-82; M. P. Feldman and M. J. MacCulloch, Homosexual Behavior: Therapy and Assessment (Oxford: Pergamon, 1971); Hatterer, Changing Homosexuality in the Male, pp. 465-83 (and preceding discussion of technique, 49-387); H. E. Kaye et al., "Homosexuality in Women," Archives of General Psychology 17 (1967): 626-34.

58 W. H. Masters and V. E. Johnson, Homosexuality in Perspective (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979). Conversion candidates were those who had little or no prior heterosexual experience; reversion candidates were those with considerable prior heterosexual experience who were currently practicing homosexuality (p. 333). On the therapy technique, see especially pp. 255-60.

59 Ibid., p. 401. For criticism of this study, which centers on the incompleteness of the information supplied by Masters and Johnson, see Haldeman, "Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy," pp. 154-55.

60 See, for example, Goss, Jesus Acted Up, p. 44; McNeill, The Church and the Homosexual, pp. 122-23. Both make explicit comparisons between aversion therapy and Nazi death camps. See Birk, "Myth of Classical Homosexuality," pp. 378.79, Diamant, "The Therapies," pp. 208-9, and Greenspoon and Lamal, "Behaviorist Approach,' Pp. 122-23, on the abandonment of physical aversion techniques.

61 Greenspoon and Lamal, "Behaviorist Approach," pp. 124-26; Birk, "Myth of Classical Homosexuality," pp. 380-9.

62 Moberly, "Homosexuality: Restating the Conservative Case," pp. 291-93.

63 Hatterer (Changing Homosexuality in the Male, pp. 445-64) provides the most detailed catalog of variables. See also D. S. Sanders, "A Psychotherapeutic Approach to Homosexual Men," in Homosexual Behavior: A Modem Reappraisal, ed. J. Marmor (New York: Basic Books, 1980), pp. 342-56, especially p. 346; Marmor, "Clinical Aspects of Male Homosexuality," . pp. 277-8; J. R. Cavanaugh, Counseling the Homosexual (Huntington, Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1977), p. 240.

64 The umbrella organization for such ministries to homosexuals is Exodus International, which provides a monthly update of referral and affiliate agencies by region to inquirers: P.O. Box 2121, San Rafael, CA 94912. [Editor: new address is available.]

65 This is the method of P. B. Jung and R. F. Smith (Heterosexism: An Ethical Challenge [Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1993]), who dispute one study (Masters and Johnson) and one outdated method (behaviorist shock therapy), conclude that there has been "no documented success in reorienting homosexuals (p. 19) and later feel free to generalize about "what we know scientifically about human sexuality" (p. 83). I trust these authors know more than they reveal, but their method of argument is irresponsible. It is objectionable enough for these authors to deny the burden of proof at nearly every point, but in this case their apparent acceptance of the burden is a mirage. It appears that what they describe as lack of evidence is in fact an assertion that they are not convinced (read: not convinceable) by evidence contrary to their assumptions.

66 Leanne Payne, The Broken Image (Westchester, Ill.: 1981); see also Leanne Payne, The Healing of the Homosexual (Westchester, Ill.: Crossway, 1984), which is essentially a condensation of the earlier book.

67 Andrew Comiskey, Pursuing Sexual Wholeness (Lake Mary, Fla.: Creation House, 1989). A study guide for small groups is also available. [Editor: one must take a training course to purchase the study guide now.]

68 Bob Davies and Lori Rentzel, Coming Out of Homosexuality (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993).

69 Michael Saia, Counseling the Homosexual (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1988).

70 J. R. Cavanaugh, Counseling the Homosexual (Huntington, Ind.: Our Sunday Visitor, 1977).

71 G. J. M. van den Aardweg, Homosexuality and Hope (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Servant, 1985). Van den Aardweg has also written a clinical book, cited above (n. 41), which contains a helpful appendix (pp. 269-77) giving parents guidelines for the encouragement of heterosexuality in their children.

72 J. Arteburn, How Do I Tell My Mother? (Nashville: Oliver-Nelson, 1988; rev. 1990)

73 M. White, Stranger at the Gate (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994); G. D. Comstock, Gay Theology Without Apology (New York: Pilgrim, 1993); R. Williams, Just As I Am: A Practical Guide To Being Out and Christian (New York: Crown, 1992); J. J. McNeill, The Church and the Homosexual (Boston: Beacon, 1976; 4th ed. 1993).

74 J. Arteburn, How Do I Tell My Mother? pp. 127,181.